GPS World

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  • The surveyor and the mapper — sharing the same stage

    The surveyor and the mapper — sharing the same stage

    The world of mathematics has always been a mysterious one. It is universally loved by those who enjoy STEM-related fields and occupations, while being generally loathed by those who prefer the arts and humanities (similar to the argument with cats versus dogs, but let us not go down that rabbit hole). It would be easy to believe that if each side sticks to their side of the road, there would be peace and harmony in the world.

    While I cannot speak for the art and humanities group, I can say with certainty that the STEM-related mathematics professions have been known to disagree with each other on various roles within the surveying and mapping world. While surveying has been around since the beginning of time, various forms of organized mapping systems began in earnest in the 1960s.

    When attempts were made to bring the two professions together, each side bristled at being mentioned in the same breath as the other one. The surveyors were the outdoor cowboys with theodolites and tapes, measuring properties and improvements with low precision and accuracy. The mappers, now beginning to be known by the acronym GIS (geographical information system) technicians, were the office computer nerds with punch cards and slide rules.

    Each side did not care much for the other — mostly because they did not understand each other’s role in creating the modern infrastructure database. This relationship would last for decades with no relief in sight.

    Early (and unresolvable) differences

    Each side brought a good argument to the table regarding why the other side was not as important to the authoritative role of map/plat making. For instance, here are the typical stances of each side in the 1970s, before the introduction of personal computers and electronic data collectors.

    • Surveyors worked on the ground and with actual monuments and improvements. They measured angles and distances to collect the pertinent data and drew by hand said information graphically on paper. Because of the accuracy and precision of the field measurements, adjustments were made to the calculations to resolve the unknown errors within the data collection.
    • GIS technicians used a combination of hand calculations, drafting and primitive computers to depict information obtained by existing maps and plats. Because the information being reviewed was not obtained through field methods, parcel lines were forced to fit, improvements to be shown with 90-degree corners, and ambiguities with most data issues to be dismissed.

    Each side stood their ground (in the field or the office) and maintained the distance and differences until more technological revolutions began to infiltrate their vision. At first blush, one could assume these advancements would bring the two factions together; one would be wrong.

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    Photo: RyanJLane/E+/Getty Images
    Photo: RyanJLane/E+/Getty Images

    The 1980s are known for many things, but for the surveying and mapping communities, it brought a new way of reviewing and storing spatial data. The introduction of the personal computer and vector-based software in the early part of the decade set the pace for rapid and revolutionary upgrades to each profession.

    It was now possible to see on a computer screen what had only been previously possible through manual computation and drafting. As the decade went on, computing speed and storage continued to increase along with the features of software packages.

    However, these advancements did little to bring the surveying and mapping professions together; in fact, the technology has been blamed for causing even more of a divide between the two.

    Again, each side has their reasons for maintaining their hold on being recognized as the authority on the creation of the cadaster layer.

    • Surveyors continued to insist because they worked on the ground and with actual monuments and improvements, the process of putting the data into a computerized format only solidified their position.
    • GIS technicians continued to insist that the refinement of their previous calculations of drafting and mapping into a computerized version further extended their expertise in the mapping world. Also, because many in GIS were specifically trained on computers in college, the work being produced by these members was superior to surveyors.

    Even with the improvements in technology from computers, the divide between the two grew. The relationship between surveying and mapping was at an all-time low, so there must be nowhere to go but up, right? Not so fast.

    GPS + spatial = data custody battle?

    Photo: Magellan
    Photo: Magellan

    Through the 1990s and beyond, the introduction and subsequent rapid implementation of GPS/GNSS gave new meaning to a previous but rarely used term: geospatial data. Only geodesists and higher-end scientists truly worked with geospatial data because of their professional environment and expertise, but now anyone with a GPS receiver became a geospatial data collector.

    Previously, surveyors would measure on a global scale (latitude/longitude and/or state plane coordinates), but this would typically consist of solar and lunar observations under ideal conditions. GIS technicians could only rely on data provided to fit within the location parameters of their projects, which has usually scaled from quadrangle maps.

    However, this new technology was being used with data collectors programmed for almost anyone to use with little to no geodesy experience. Turn it on, press a button and voila — a geospatial location in a variety of coordinate systems. No more sun shots, lengthy traverses from obscure NGS monuments, or scaling from the quad sheets.

    Finally, the surveying and mapping communities have common ground to work on! It would be easy to assume that walls came down and the two professions mended their fences. The short answer is no; they once again did not. Here is each side’s general take on geospatial abilities:

    • Surveyors (once again!) continued to insist that because they worked on the ground and with actual monuments and improvements (though now with improved positioning), the process of putting the data into a georeferenced format only solidified their position.
    • GIS technicians now contended that they, too, could collect the necessary field data using GPS and bypass the need for surveyors. Also, because many in the GIS field were specifically educated to work with spatial data, the information being produced by these members was superior to surveyors’ data.

    We now find ourselves flipping the calendar pages well into the 2020s, with little movement on resolving this relationship. But we can change that if we introduce a little friendlier dialogue.

    In this corner, the surveyor. In the opposite corner, the GIS technician

    When it comes to high accuracy/high-precision data collection for locating existing properties and improvements, there will be little argument that this role is strictly designated to the surveying profession. Technological improvements have made our work more precise and accurate; all while being collected in a georeferenced system. The relationship between the surveyor and geospatial data was previously discussed to demonstrate the importance of our work and determining existing conditions, (see GPS World July 2020 column). The surveyor’s ability to be able to collect an enormous amount of geospatial data for surveying purposes is not being questioned, but the line to where the work encroaches into GIS territory. Spoiler alert: Practically everything the surveyor collects can be considered GIS information as well.

    Let us look at the relationship from the GIS perspective. The input and oversight of the parcel layer must rely on the licensed land surveyor to provide, while the GIS community is charged to collect necessary information to include into their database. It would make sense to update existing infrastructure information using current technology or historical archives in which the position of the data can be verified. Either way, it is now going to be referenced by its geospatial position rather than a relationship to a parcel line.

    Also, the GIS technicians have the same or better capability to utilize data collectors with GNSS receivers for locating existing improvements for inclusion into their system. Most of these technicians have access to the same sources providing the GNSS equipment and coupled with their education and skills, they can collect the data as well as any survey crew. B

    ut does this data collection by a GIS technician fall under most state statutes for surveying without a license? Spoiler alert: The short answer is yes, it does if any data collection includes parcel monumentation and could depict a relationship to a parcel line.

    The whole is greater than the sum of its parts

    Before both parties of this discussion get their pitchforks and torches to have a “talk” with this author, let us take a step back and reassess where we are today with technology and looking toward a future together. The common element here is the data, but how each party uses the data does vary.

    The surveyor typically uses geospatial data for several applications; boundary determination, existing planimetric and topographical conditions, and physical depiction of proposed improvements. The surveyor’s data should be considered as a snapshot in time of the conditions of a particular site or project area.

    Because of emerging technology, it is not just manually collected survey points using conventional equipment; it can be point clouds and 3D photographs not possible 20 years ago. The surveyor can be considered a high-tech record keeper and can update information as sites change. All because the collected geospatial data is timestamped and memorialized in a digital database.

    GIS professionals, on the other hand, require similar information but for many different purposes. Attributes play a much bigger role in the geospatial data requirements than surveyors because the information found within tells them an important story.

    Photo: aydinmutlu/E+/Getty Images
    Photo: aydinmutlu/E+/Getty Images

    The biggest improvement because of the increasing accuracy of the data is infrastructure. As aging utilities require replacement, locating old facilities can be difficult based upon old mapping. Geospatial data collection provides more reliable locations once old facilities are found, existing conditions are reported, and crucial information about its lifespan is collected for future consideration.

    Newly installed utilities will have the luxury of significant attribute data applied to each structure to help with future monitoring and maintenance. These are some of the factor that apply to effective asset management and can be applicable to both public and private clients.

    While the surveyor and the mapper use geospatial data for similar yet different uses, the product is generally the same. But this discussion is not just about merging data into one big global database; we need to dig a little deeper on how to grow each side of our professions together.

    Growth is never by mere chance; it is the result of forces working together

    The surveying and mapping professions have been at a crossroad for some time and both sides continue to ignore each other. Both believe that geospatial data is theirs to control, and they both are right. However, each have a different stake in this geospatial data discussion and need to learn to respect each other’s role. Each side brings a different perspective how to grow and advance our world through effective and efficient surveying and mapping, but they must start talking to realize how much they can grow together.

    With a little more focus and education of each other’s roles on both sides, an overlap of responsibilities could mean faster approach to modernizing many aspects of our respective professions. For instance:

    • Cross training of surveyors in GIS software, data collection requirements, parcel modules, and layer nomenclature
      • Encourage surveyors to apply for GISCI Certified GIS Professional (GISP) testing
    • Cross training of GIS professionals and technicians with survey technician programs
      • Encourage GIS personnel to apply for NSPS Certified Survey Technician (CST) testing
    • Both surveyors and mappers cross training with data collection systems capable of collecting geospatial data containing specific positional information and attributes
      • Identifying limitations of various equipment and techniques (i.e. using the right “tool” for the job)
      • Understanding of positional tolerance (precision versus accuracy) and metadata
      • Comprehension of coordinate systems and zones, including low distortion projections (LDP)
      • Distinguishing between surveying and mapping data collection (i.e. boundary/right-of-way determination versus infrastructure collection for inventory)

    Light at the end of the tunnel

    Technology has introduced our world to many advances not thought possible for our entire existence. The Fourth Industrial Revolution (see GPS World July 2019 column) is now taking aim at industries like surveying and mapping through automation and artificial intelligence capability.

    Data is crucial to everything and our respective professions are in the center of the revolution. 2020 and our worldwide pandemic of COVID-19 has been (unfortunately) perfect example of how data affects our world in real time. The more critical and accurate data that is collected, the better we can make assessments of situations.

    Surveyors and mappers are doing the same thing with data; survey data helps design our world through establishing accurate conditions, while GIS data helps to evaluate our current conditions and plan for future situations. Both professions rely heavily on data, collected in similar methods, but for separate but similar uses. Each has their strengths to bring to the collective table and can increase the effectiveness of digital modeling going forward.

    Photo: PeopleImages/E+/Getty Images
    Photo: PeopleImages/E+/Getty Images

    Let’s make a plan

    The world is moving toward digital twins, augmented and virtual reality along with autonomous travel; it would be in our best interest that the data used to identify the surroundings for those advancements be correct and seamless from all sources. Let us begin by dropping all the delusions of grandeur for our respective professions and formulate a plan to move forward together. The clock is ticking, and time continues to march on.

    Technology continues, and soon Generation Z will be trying to do our work with their laptops and smartphones from the coffee shops without our help. Because they can. See, it is important, isn’t it?

  • From the Great Pyramids to GIS/GPS

    From the Great Pyramids to GIS/GPS

    Connection to the Stars

    Pyramids of Giza taken from the International Space Station. (Image: NASA)
    Pyramids of Giza taken from the International Space Station. (Image: NASA)

    The Great Pyramids still cast their long shadow upon history. It’s been said that even Time kneels before them. They are monuments to the state-of-the-art technology of the builders using their most advanced astronomy, engineering, mathematics and trigonometry as a testament to their understanding of the world.

    They are monuments to the builder’s state-of-the-art technology at the time using their most advanced astronomy, engineering, mathematics, and trigonometry as a testament to their advanced understanding of the world.

    The pyramids’ corners align perfectly to the four cardinal points. Shafts on the north slope point towards the circumpolar stars, the so-called “Imperishable Ones” because they never set beneath the horizon. The Great Sphinx, eternal companion of the pyramids, is perfectly aligned to face the rising Sun on the morning of the summer solstice.

    These constructs defined the physical framework of their cosmogony — ancient Egypt’s center of the world — their prime meridian and equator. References of place were in terms of direction and distance from the pyramids.

    The word meridian is a Latin derivative of meridiem, as in a.m. and p.m., meaning midday. The moment is marked by the sundials’ shadow being neither to the west nor to the east and is directly in the middle. It marks an imaginary line running from north to south. The Prime Meridian is synonymous with Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), Universal Time Coordinate (UTC), or the military time zone Zulu.

    In Mesopotamia in 600 B.C. is a map carved into a clay tablet depicting Babylon in the center surrounded by a circular ocean marking the edge of the known world. Beyond the ocean are eight projections emanating like sunrays. Four of them point to the cardinal directions and the other four towards celestial bodies with mythological significance.

    This map, called the Bitter Waters, the name of the circular ocean, is considered the oldest in the world; and thus, the first official cartographer forged together the geography of the physical world with that of the cosmos.

    Early maps had few frames of reference. If you wanted to know your whereabouts, you had to already know where you were, otherwise, you’d need the expertise of a seasoned guide.

    Celestial bodies were the primary means for finding one’s way, the main one being the Sun, especially at daybreak. In fact, for thousands of years the importance of the sunrise was so essential to getting oneself pointed in the right direction that to this day it remains the principle word for that action.

    Consider the following. The way a map is pointed is how it is oriented. If someone is lost, physically or consciously, that person is disoriented. The skill of traversing overland is orienteering. These all stem from the Latin word for east, orientalis; hence, the civilizations beyond Byzantium were considered the Orient, and likewise, the word Asia comes from the Phoenician word for sunrise, Asu. Thus, setting out on a journey required waking up with the sunrise and marking the direction of the shadow and then dead reckon along that line due west, or opposite the line due east.

    In fact, many ancient maps were oriented toward the east such as the Mappa Mundi mentioned later in this article. At night, the North Star and knowledge of the constellations were used for travel; but during the day, north was just a general direction. North was derived by drawing a right angle perpendicular to the line between the two points of sunrise and sunset. The term for North under Roman rule was pars caeli septentrionalis, which translated means, The part of the sky towards the seven stars, referring to Ursa Major and Minor. North was not of much use during the day until the invention of the magnetic compass.

    The Early Superpowers and the Great Sea Race

    The trade routes along the Silk Road collapsed after the fall of Byzantium in 1453, and where there is chaos there is also opportunity. Reestablishing dependable trade with the east was worth billions. Finding a sea route to become Europe’s source of spices and goods was too alluring. The “Sea Race” of nations had begun.

    Cantino Planisphere. (1502) (Image: public domain)
    Cantino Planisphere. (1502) (Image: public domain)

    Portugal won the first round of the Sea Race claiming islands to use for trade routes rounding the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 and reaching India in 1498. Columbus, sailing under the Spanish flag discovered the Americas in 1492. The Mappa Mundi by Spanish explorer Juan de la Cosa in 1500 is the first map to show the Americas.

    Navigational maps were closely guarded national secrets; so much so, the Duke of Ferrara hired a spy, Albert Cantino, to steal a Portuguese nautical map, which is now named in his honor, the Cantino Planisphere, and it shows the emerging knowledge of the newly discovered world. It also marks the evolution of travel using celestial navigation. America, unnamed at the time, was a closely guarded secret by the Spanish and of top national interest.

    Portugal and Spain dominated the oceans for most of the 15th and 16th centuries to the point that the world was divided between the two along a meridian known as the Tordesillas Line splitting the world between the two superpowers.

    Technology Ignites the Golden Age of Sailing Ships

    Thanks to early navigation of the Portuguese and the Spanish, the magnetic compass and the sextant came into use, allowing more precise calculations of latitude improving navigation. Cartography and surveying improved as a result. Ingenious approaches for telling time at sea were invented. One method used Jupiter’s four primary moons as a clock.

    England, over 100 years late to the global expansion entered the Age of Sail in 1600 when Queen Elizabeth signed the charter establishing the East India Company (EIC). Contrary to both the Portuguese and Spanish models which were funded by their monarchies, the English created a profit-sharing corporate model, which would ultimately account for half of all the world’s trade.

    The EIC remains the most profitable company in history (inflation adjusted), but the costs of running such a vast enterprise were also great. The EIC lost nearly 220 ships. Every ship lost was the loss of a captain, the crew, the cargo, and the ship itself. Shipping was a costly venture. Not counting pirates, storms and war, the primary cause of shipwrecks was incorrect location. Distances could be off by hundreds of miles, enough to end up in the shallows or the rocks.

    The problem wasn’t latitude. That could be determined with a great degree of certainty using angular measurements of the sun and celestial bodies above the horizon. Longitude was the culprit. Knowing position on an east west axis proved much more difficult. Longitude was thought to be an astronomical problem, and in order to solve it King Charles II established the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England in 1675, which happened to be at the height of Europe’s scientific revolution, the primary scientist at the time being Isaac Newton.

    However, as many of the greatest minds attempted to solve the problem, none were able to do so. Thirty years’ later the Royal Society presented the challenge to the public offering a reward of £20,000, which is equivalent to approximately $3.1 million in 2019. It was known as the Longitude Act of 1714. The solution finally came in 1736.

    John Harrison, a clockmaker, understood that space and time are inextricably connected. Longitude was solved by having two chronometers, which literally means an instrument to measure time. One chronometer was set to local time each day at noon. The other was set to Greenwich Mean Time. The difference in hours between the two pinpointed the time zone and the corresponding longitude. The original time zones were not the political ones represented today. There were 24 of them around the circumference of the earth and each time zone corresponded to a different letter of the alphabet.

    Time zones traverse in increments of -1 hour to the west and towards the east +1 hour for 12 hours in each direction totaling 24 in all. The Greenwich Observatory lies within time zone 0 which is the military time zone Z. In the military phonetic alphabet Z is Zebra but it used to be Zulu.. The more precise time could be measured, the more accurate the position, thus, location coordinates are measured in degrees, minutes and seconds.

    Today, the world’s primary chronometer is called the Master Clock and is housed at the United States Naval Observatory (USNO) in Washington, D.C. The USNO’s primary mission is position, navigation and timing (PNT). The grounds of the USNO is the home of the Vice President indicating the importance time is to commerce and the welfare of a nation.

    GPS satellites set their internal clocks to the USNO Master Clock. PNT is so precise location can be determined down to the sub-millimeter level. Every smartphone’s geolocation is tied into this network. The U.S. Naval Observatory Master Clock has a phone number, (202)762-1401, and every 15 seconds the voice of Time proclaims the exact moment, translating the decay of cesium-133 into the same language of the pyramids, the Sphinx and Stonehenge.

    A final thought. Heraclitus said we cannot step into the same river twice. The river changes by the flow of itself. But, Time itself is a river and with each passing moment our lives forever change. Look back. It is the past — the place of regret and glory. Look forward. It is the future where hope and fear reside. Look at the present. It is the only place we are.

  • Diving into digital mapping history with OpenStreetMap

    Diving into digital mapping history with OpenStreetMap

    A European region in 2015. (Image: OpenStreetMap)
    A European region in 2015. (Image: OpenStreetMap)

    A tool developed by Mapbox explores “10 years of OpenStreetMap.” During that decade, hundreds of thousands of people mapped 25 million miles of roads in every country in the world.

    The internet tool uses a slider to show the data change over time. You can see additions and edits as they come online over the decade — a fascinating look at the intricate information that has been compiled. When a user drags the slider to the left, it’s easy to see how scant the information was only a few years into OpenStreetMap’s existence (the image at right shows the same European region in 2009 as the image at the top in 2015).

    The same European region in 2009 as the image at the top in 2015. (Image: OpenStreetMap)
    The same European region in 2009 as the image at the top in 2015. (Image: OpenStreetMap)

    After GPS and GNSS, OpenStreetMap ranks high in the movement to make geographic information accessible. OpenStreetMap is a community-driven project to create the most detailed, correct and current open map of the world.

    When Steve Coast began the project in 2004, map data sources were few, and largely controlled by private companies and the government. Coast changed the rules by creating a wiki-like resource of the entire globe, which everyone could use. Today, 5.2 million people use OpenStreetMap.

    OpenStreetMap democratized mapping: all a contributor needed was time and a computer connection to add data about their country or their neighborhood. Besides GNSS, contributors use aerial imagery and low-tech field maps to verify that OSM is accurate and up to date. Others dedicate their energies to humanitarian projects, including disaster response following the Haiti hurricane and aiding South Sudan and Syrian refugees.